The Hygiology Post®
*Subtext To Posts include "Holland's Theory: Strengthening It©" 1986 (Otherwise stated as "A Theory Of Social Change") and Q Factor Analysis Results (All eight hypotheses that could be examined by this method were supported) from The Dissertation "The Relationship Between The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory©" 1992. Both Can Be Accessed In Earliest Posts* 
The Dissertation represents one piece of research that supports the 1986 paper. For example, A. the Q-factor Analysis Summary results on pages 167-168 included: "High MBTI Intuition scores were positively associated with Investigative and Artistic and lowest on Enterprising and Conventional codes." and B. The Canonical Correlation Summary Results on page 157 included: "The results indicated that Intuition was consistently and positively associated with the A and I Holland Codes and negatively associated with the C Holland code." (parentheses content omitted)  
16PF research also supports the aforementioned 1986 paper. 
Louis DeCola Jr.© 2023     The Hygiology Post® 
HOLLAND'S THEORY: STRENGTHENING IT (Abridged Version)
Copyright © 1986 Louis DeCola, Jr.
Holland's theory of career choice stands probably as the predominant theory of vocational behavior. It has been supported by numerous empirical studies. In spite of this, it has several weaknesses. My theory will address the following weaknesses:  It does not (a) adequately explain how people have become their present type, (b) account for why some people change more than others, and (c) suggest differential ways to counsel people       
based on typology. The following theory will thus focus on several aspects of vocational behavior including development, choice, adjustment,
and change.
PRESENTATION OF THEORY AND BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
1.The physical (including biological) universe will remain essentially the same in its basic characteristics.
2, Holland's Theory (1973) correctly describes individuals and the world of work at this time in our culture. (It could also be used to classify individuals of cultures in the past).
Specifically, his four basic assumptions are correct and worth repeating:
a. "In our culture, most persons can be characterized as one of six types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional." 
b. "There are six kinds of environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising or conventional." 
c. "People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes, and take on agreeable problems and roles."
d. "A person's behavior is determined by an interaction between his personality and the characteristics of his environment."
Development of personality typology is probably a function of several factors. One particularly important aspect is how people gather information.
Gathering information or one's preferred way of perceiving things can be put on a continuum of sensing-perceiving (Jung, 1971). The sensing type focuses on perceptions received directly through the five senses; concrete details, practical facts; the present. In contrast, the intuitive type goes beyond details and looks at how things might be and implications; gains an understanding of a whole configuration without comprehending details; perceives via the unconscious of another person; and tends to live in the future or the past. (Parenthetically, I believe intelligence is positively correlated with intuition,, which, going beyond the sensory date, requires more "mental muscle." Level of intelligence and how one gathers information are both important factors in conceptualizing information which in turn affects decision making.)
4. A square versus a hexagon would best delineate between typologies based on how one gathers information.
Holland E, C, R, and S types gather information primarily in the sensation mode in contrast to I and A types who gather information in the intuitive mode.
                                               C R                I
     
              MORE SENSING<------------------------>MORE INTUITIVE
                           
                                               E S                 A
5. C and E types display a dominance/predominance of the sensation versus intuitive function. Because of their extreme degree of the sensation function and hence focusing on the facts of the present, they are especially vulnerable to extreme societal -- cultural influences.
Erich Fromm (1957) succinctly summarizes the development and subsequent impact of our culture:
"Indeed, culture has not only a beneficial but also a detrimental influence on our intellectual and moral functions. Human beings are dependent on each other, they need each other. But human history up to now has been influenced by one fact: material production was not sufficient to satisfy the legitimate needs of all men. The table was set for only a few of the many who wanted to sit down and eat. Those who were stronger tried to secure places for themselves, which meant that they had to prevent others from getting seats. If they had loved their brothers as much as Buddha or the Prophets or Jesus postulated, they would have shared their bread rather than eat meat and drink wine without them...
In this process of deflection and distortion man's character becomes distorted. Aims which are in contrast to the interests of his real human self become paramount. His powers of love are impoverished, and he is driven to want power over others." 
In fact, E and C types are most likely to exhibit characteristics similar to the masochistic and sadistic character types as described by Fromm. C types are most likely to exhibit masochistic character tendencies, and E types are most likely to exhibit sadistic character tendencies.
However, both tendencies would be found in an individual exhibiting either tendency.
Fromm (1941) described these groups in the following way: 
"The most frequent forms in which masochistic strivings appear are feelings of inferiority, powerlessness, individual insignificance...
...Besides these masochistic trends, the very opposite of them, namely, sadistic tendencies, are regularly to be found in the same kind of characters. They vary in strength, are more or less conscious, yet they are never missing. We find three kinds of sadistic tendencies, more or less closely knit together. One is to make others dependent on oneself and to have absolute and unrestricted power over them, so as to make of them nothing but instruments, 'clay in the potter's hand.' Another consists of the impulse not only to rule over others in this absolute fashion, but to exploit them, to use them, to steal from them, to disembowel them, and, so to speak, to incorporate anything eatable in them. This desire can refer to material things as well as to immaterial ones, such as the emotional or intellectual qualities a person has to offer. A third kind of sadistic tendency is the wish to make others suffer or to see them suffer. This suffering can be physical, but more often it is mental suffering. Its aim is to hurt actively, to humiliate, embarrass others, or to see them in embarrassing and humiliating situations."
6. Changes in society have historically occurred via a dialectical opposition of Holland types. 
Specifically, intuitives (I and A), by realizing possibilities for change and a better world in the physical or social sphere, have sought and found solutions to man's existence. They have literally moved mankind in the direction of change.
As a person becomes increasingly dissatisfied with what is, he/she tends to increasingly focus on what can be and tends to live less and less in the present. The person tends to call forth more and more of his capacities for intuition. I believe that many social activists who wish to change the social environment have peered through the veneer of people, and, while not liking what they have seen, have been able to envision a better people and society through their understanding of the power of the environment.
The great catalysts in the intellectual and social sphere in history have been I and A types who have especially opposed E and C types. Karl Marx was such a person. However, he saw social change forces as emanating only from the material bases of society (1973) (i.e., that which the sensation type predominantly responds to). Thus, he focused on the dialectical opposition of classes, while not seeing any real value in the realm of ideas in so far as it changes society: ideas spring from material bases according to Marx. However, while only the most brilliant and intuitive individuals in the past were able to rise above cultural influences, and "move" history, as history becomes less oppressive, more and more intuitive types can break through cultural barriers that can lead to change.
In fact, in the past, I and A types have been suppressed in their thoughts and actions. The more authoritarian a society or 
person is the more it curbs and suppresses I and A Holland code types (egs: Gallileo [I] vs. the clergy of the church [E, C], Artists [A] during the McCarthy era [E] of the 1950's in the U.S.).
7. In the future, a square versus a hexagon will best delineate between Holland code types.
As society historically advances, the E and C typologies as we know them will vanish; as such it may be better to view E types as S types and C types as R types. Western societies as we
know them today will not exist. (In fact, man has increasingly moved away from authoritarian, capitalist, exploitative systems as history has advanced.) Intuitive types will continuously seek for social change. People will recognize, operationally, the validity of the Rogerian claim (Corsini, 1983) that positive regard from others is needed (both tangibly, for example, by having basic physiological needs met and intangibly via social interactions) for optimum human development. Then, people will be fully open to their experiences, characterized by a lack of defensiveness. Their self esteem will be higher too, which will lead to a higher level of ability and efficiency. I believe this will also be translated into higher levels of ability and efficiency for society, too. As individuals function more effectively, society does too (in the world of work and elsewhere).
Individuals disposed formerly to being E and C types, characterized by a high degree of the sensation function, will paradoxically adapt to the changes in society (as these individuals are more accommodating). Job environments will reflect these changes as there will be no need for E jobs as we presently know them (for example, salesmen). Office work, now a C code may best 
be conceptualized as an R job: light manual labor. Thus E types may best be seen as S types and C types may best be viewed as R types.
8. The size of the square will get smaller in the future as a more efficacious and caring social system replaces our present social system.
The size of the square at any one time will be a function of man's ability to exercise (more rational) less defensive solutions to the problems of human existence. The smaller the square, the more similar interpersonal relations will approach intrapersonal relations. The more these approach one another, the more altruistic people will be (operationally). The "quality" of altruism will be dependent upon the degree of self acceptance/ non-defensiveness, which is dependent upon the operationalization of positive regard being displayed in interpersonal relations.
Altruism will thus lead to increased self esteem, self determination, and self actualization (Corsini, p.189). While self actualization will truly help individuals be free from others' influence, paradoxically, people will be more similar due to increased communality and understanding. Today, E and C types are most different in their interpersonal and intrapersonal relations (i.e. lower altruism) versus I and A types who are more altruistic. It appears probable that man will always have differential abilities, intelligence, etc. However, it is man's choice as to whether this will operationally be translated into differential cultural gifts (i.e. the tangible and intangible works/relations of man). Man will "mature", choosing to exercise more rational, healthy, operationally productive solutions to the problems of his
human existence.
9. R types share with I types a preference for working in the physical realm while A and S types share a preference for working in the social sphere.
As a group, A types exhibit the most inner turmoil. This is at least somewhat a consequence of the present "toxic" social milieu, which is portrayed many times in their work. As the social milieu changes, this group will especially experience less inner turmoil, as all groups will be psychologically "healthier."
10. The more an individual is a sensation type, the more likely he/she may change jobs due to an "internal" preference change as the external world affects this type the most.
11. Generally, the more an individual is a sensation type, the more (accommodating) reactive (Lofquist and Dawis, 1976) they will be and the less active.
12. Generally, the more an individual is an intuitive type, the more assimilating), active (Loftquist and Dawis, 1976) they will be and the less reactive.
Applicability of Theory
13. This model of career choice and development would be most appropriate for almost any person or group seeking to choose a career.  It would be contraindicated
for individuals who are experiencing severe mental difficulties.
14. Counseling
Sensation (R, S, E, C) individuals would react best to a structured counseling situation while intuitive types (I, A) would prefer more unstructured procedures. However, sensation individuals would probably benefit most from exploring the development of their career choice and how it matches their values whereas intuitive types may profit best from concrete information about the world of work and everyday mundane activities within particular careers. Of course, both sources of information would be important to either type. The sensation individual will probably wish to focus on what actually is done while the intuitive type will probably wish to focus on the overall nature of the work.
Thus, it may be important for the counselor to be especially aware of what types of information either type (especially if extreme) will probably wish to know about and which type of information they may not pay much attention to while at the same time they probably would benefit from knowing. Alerting both counselor and counselee to this issue may help make both more aware of possible blind spots and weaknesses in the counseling process (i.e., judged from the perspective that exploring development of career choice as well as actual knowledge of the world of work is important in vocational counseling).
To assess where an individual might be on the sensation intuition continuum a counselor could employ either a testing instrument such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (1962) or
use his or her own clinical judgement or both.
Testing the Theory: Some Preliminary Steps
15. There are several parts of the theory that could be realistically tested. Some have been alluded to already. The crucial part of the theory is establishing whether I and A Holland code types are more intuitive and R, S, E and C Holland code types are more sensing. This could easily be tested by administering both the Strong  Vocational Interest Inventory (1981) and Myers Briggs Type Indicator (1962) to individuals.                                                                                                             
Doing well in the business world requires intelligence and intuition. E types who either have a higher income or are at the upper echelons of their profession would have more A and I in their Holland code than those not as "successful."
In contrast to intuitive types (I, A,) sensation types (R, S, E, C) would score higher on social desirability, conformity, authoritarianism and external locus of control scales; be more likely to experience cognitive dissonance; be more reactive, accommodating, and extrinsically motivated; be less intelligent; prefer directive, behavioral types of interventions to nondirective and cognitive types of interventions; and be less altruistic at at this time in our society.
Louis DeCola Jr. Copyright© 1986